Wednesday, August 3, 2016

Christianity Sex and Orgasm

What’s the Bible got to do with orgasms?
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A New Study Provokes a Question About Christian Education

The answer might depend on how you interpret the creation stories. Here’s’ why.

On 31 July 2016 a Yale University study of female orgasm was published in the Journal of Experimental Zoology. The biopsychology of sexuality is viewed from an evolutionary perspective but until this study, previous research and attendant explanations failed to reveal a clear link between human female orgasm and either the facilitation of fertilization or increasing the number of pregnancies. In addition, female orgasms do not occur on a regular basis during heterosexual intercourse but are more reliably produced by other methods due to female anatomy. In contrast, male orgasm is clearly linked to the movement of sperm toward an egg during intercourse.

The researcher’s inquiry considered the production of hormones during human female orgasm then looked for other animals that showed similar hormone surges as a part of copulation-induced ovulation. The findings indicate a specific role for female organism in animals where copulation stimulates ovulation suggesting that this type of reproduction preceded the relative independence of orgasm from reproduction in humans and other primates. They suggest that like other traits, human female orgasm may have persisted as a trait for secondary reasons—reasons not related to reproduction.

Christianity and Sexuality

When it comes to teaching about sex, contemporary Christians often refer to the Genesis union of Adam and Eve as an example of a God-blessed sexuality. The story has been used in many ways, including the idea held by some that the purpose of marriage is procreation.

The difficulty in understanding the purpose of female orgasm has puzzled scientists for years. The new research points in a new direction guided by evolutionary theory. In contrast, a strict creationist view offers no specific scientific guidance in how to understand the presence of female orgasm, which does not appear necessary for procreation.

One integration approach to such issues for students of biopsychology is to consider God as Creator and evolution as a process that is not inconsistent with either the Bible or new developments in science.

See related posts on Christianity, Psychology, and Evolution below.

Thoughts and Questions

Can Christians studying sexuality at a conservative Christian college or university obtain accurate information?

Will graduates from conservative Christian colleges and universities struggle to get into respectable graduate and professional schools if they do not understand the evolutionary bases that explain much of biology and biopsychology?

Will Christians from conservative colleges and universities suffer from a general disrespect in cultures where scientists are highly respected for advances in health care and technology?

How can scientists at conservative Christian colleges and universities deal with parents and donors who insist on teaching creationism and reject all teaching about human evolution? (This assumes that scientists do not accept the view that creation is incompatible with evolution.)

Should graduates and other donors withhold funds and refuse to send their children to conservative Christian colleges or universities that deny the compatibility of creation and evolution?

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 A House Divided: Sexuality, Morality, and Christian Cultures.

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Related posts on Christianity and Evolution







Monday, July 18, 2016

Christians, Porn and Culture




Is a porn platform plank just pandering to religious conservatives or is there a problem?

There’s a problem. But who should do what?

Republicans provided a 2016 political platform and porn is a part of the final document.

According to Judith Shulevitz writing in the New York Times (July 16, 2016), efforts to restrict access to porn have not fared well. Some attempts at legislation in the U.S. fell to First Amendment rights concerns. Software filters are not powerful or pervasive enough to limit exposure to porn for children. In the end, Shulevitz draws our attention to examples of current trends in porn and challenges parents—especially liberal parents—to consider what their children will be viewing at age 11—the average age of exposure to internet porn.

The Politics of Porn

Given Christian concerns about sexuality in the culture, it’s no surprise to see sexual issues arise in the Republican party where significant numbers of evangelicals find a political home. The question is, what about porn makes it a political issue?

I think Shulevitz has a point. Porn is a problem—at least the protection of children from exposure to porn is a social issue of concern to many parents. We limit speech rights when it comes to inciting violence or threats of harm. We have reasonable evidence that at least some forms of porn pose psychological harm. Reviewing the scientific evidence, or even funding new studies aimed at identifying the porn-harm connection, might be a reasonable path for legislatures to consider in dealing with porn in the United States. Government can also offer grants to support better filtering technology. Obviously, people with advanced technical skills will find ways around most digital controls, but that ought not to stop governments from trying to limit access.

Christians and porn

Instead of looking to government for assistance, Christians have resources available online to help them understand the problem and install software controls. There are controls on browsers and smart TVs. The limitations are not perfect but they are available. Keeping computers in public places in the home has been used by some though I do not know how effective that is.

Children will be exposed to porn regardless of what parents do. So, a comprehensive sex-education program is needed. You will need to start early. If your church does not address the issue, then consider a book study with other parents as a way to start a discussion. Think broadly about sexuality, morality, and culture (a not subtle hint at my book A House Divided). Then consider more details about a sex education program (see Chapter 7; More resources below).

Here’s a suggestion. Don’t lie to children about biblical morality and sexuality. Intelligent youth will see through the often flimsy arguments in Christian sex books and end up tossing the whole purity speech in the toilet. Honesty requires us to deal with the troubling stories in the Bible. And a sound program requires grounding in principles of morality, virtue ethics, and an appreciation of weighing real (not trumped up) consequences of risky sex.

Psychological Science and Porn

Human sexuality has been studied by psychologists for decades. Obviously, sexuality is not simply a biological process. The full range of psychological dimensions of functioning may be added to the biology of sex—thinking, feeling, personality, and social context. And I would add to these, the spiritual dimension.

The American Psychological Association (2014) has an online article you may wish to read because it includes some statistics. The article summarizes some studies revealing differences in how men and women use porn. It also reviews research suggesting how porn use interferes with relationships. Problems of intimacy and depression exist for some users.

The APA article discusses “porn addiction” or better "compulsive pornography use." In one study by Valerie Voon, the brains of compulsive porn users resembled the brains of alcoholics. Scientists debate the nature of the problem but that does not mean a problem does not exist. Here’s a quote from the article: Whether or not pornography is a diagnosable addiction, it's clear it hurts some people.

References and Resources


My book, A House Divided: Sexuality, Morality, & Christian Cultures is available from the publisher at https://wipfandstock.com/a-house-divided-13548.html  FREE copies are available to reviewers and teachers.  It is also available at a low priced Kindle book from Amazon.

I have provided a FREE study guide, which you can download from the book’s web page. https://sites.google.com/site/dividedchristians/resources


Here’s the link to the APA article on porn http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/04/pornography.aspx
  
The National Association of Evangelicals has an online booklet available "Theology of Sex." http://nae.net/theology-of-sex/  

A documentary that includes Voon's research on porn addiction is available on line along with other research studies from Cambridge University. The film is titled, "Your Brain on Porn." http://yourbrainonporn.com/porn-brain-documentary-uk-channel-4 






Sunday, July 3, 2016

Christians Respond to Same-Sex Couples


Are gay people welcome in your church? 

Yesterday I had the experience of feeling like a misfit. I thought I was heading into the Convention Center in Overland Park Kansas for the National N-Scale Model Railroad annual convention. When I entered the parking lot I was directed to a spot by multiple men in suits. And it was nearly full. After parking, I looked around at a sea of people that reminded me of a Sunday morning in the 1950s. But it was Saturday. And men were wearing colorful suits with dress shirts and stylish ties. Women wore an array of beautiful dresses—many with attractive hats. Boy and girls were all dressed up too as if they were going to a wedding.

I’d come along way so I plunged into the sea and entered the Convention Center despite my well-worn outdoor hiking shirt, hiking shorts, sneakers, and wide-brimmed hat—my summer gear. People greeted me with kindly smiles-- though it was obvious I didn’t look like I belonged here. I looked for signs—nothing. At the top of the escalator I asked an officious-looking suit if he knew about the train convention. He smiled and pointed to the Sheraton next door. Gracias. It turns out all these nice people were headed to a Spanish Jehovah’s Witness Convention.

I found the railroad folks. And despite the friendly faces of the JWs, my life was on a different track.

Throughout the week I have been thinking about what to share with a group of conservative Christians who had invited me back to share some thoughts on a Christian response to sexual minorities—this in view of the tragedy in Orlando. Last year we spent three hours discussing same-sex orientation, sexual attraction, and same-sex marriage -- now they were interested in more dialogue about behaving like Christians.

We’re all aware of those Bible verses that prohibit same-sex sex. And we are familiar with the arguments by those who put forward challenges to various translations and interpretations. These are college educated folks—some with doctoral degrees.

So I began with my short story and everybody had a good laugh. But wouldn’t it be sad if people came into our churches and group discussions but felt like they didn’t fit in? Hospitality requires us to make people feel at home. Here are a few thoughts I shared.

A Christian response ought to be grounded in love of God.

Matt 22:36-38 (NIV)

36 “Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the Law?” 37 Jesus replied: “‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’[a] 38 This is the first and greatest commandment.

As Christians, we won’t get far in loving others until we focus on our primary faith-duty of loving God. People full of the love of God have been able to overcome cultural and ethnic barriers and stop hurting others. Jesus consistently reached out to heal those who were on the margins of society. Peter learned to love non-Jews (sheet and animal story). Paul learned to stop persecuting Christians (light-strike story). No doubt Peter and Paul thought they were on the right track. But they weren't.

I start with this commandment because I think we too often focus on people without recognizing that our duty to others flows from our duty toward God. Commandments entail an obligation or a duty. 

A Christian response ought to be grounded in love of others.
 Matt 22: 39-40.

39 And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’[b] 40 All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.”

The second greatest commandment is the foundation of Christian morality. To love others as we love ourselves includes an understanding of justice as fairness (think philosopher John Rawls). Christian morality includes concerns for fairness and equality. We recognize that the rights and privileges we want are those others want as well. In this context, we must love others— that includes people with whom we disagree.

I’m being practical here. We want to rent or buy a place to live, earn a living, enjoy friends, and so forth. So why are some Christians seemingly so uncaring when it comes to making sure sexual minorities are guaranteed basic rights? Of course they need special protection—without it they are denied those basic rights we have. Don't forget Orlando. Some people not only want to deny rights to sexual minorities, they actually want to kill them.  Do unto others…

A Christian response ought to consider how people are hurt by unjust rules or laws.
Mark 2:23-27; Matt 12: 1-13.

Jesus knew the rule about honoring the Sabbath—it was God’s law. But he tried to help others see the law was made for man. (I’d include women. But that’s another story.) Strict adherence to rules without considering the consequences can lead to harming rather than caring for others. Rules are important for a just society but the blind application of rules yields horrible results.

Let me give you another example. For years the only biblical justification for the ending of a marriage was adultery. And even when a husband committed adultery, clergy often encouraged wives to forgive and remain in the marriage. In the last few decades, most Christians came to realize that it was morally wrong to force women to remain with an abusing spouse—that’s after centuries of abuse! The Bible does not say a woman can divorce her husband for reasons of abuse. But caring people have reasoned that this exception to the rule make sense. (Christians still argue about remarriage but that would take me too far off track.)

A Christian response ought to consider individual conscience.
 Romans 14:5

Christians have been divided over interpretations of Scripture since Jesus was on earth. Paul’s rule in Romans 14:5 advises people to be fully convinced in their own minds.

Many of us in Western nations have religious freedom, which includes freedom to live according to our conscience. I’m not talking about some frivolous acts made up to test a legal limit. I’m talking about serious matters like killing other humans. People like the Amish have permission to live differently within negotiated parameters. Respect of conscience is important.

In this context, I think Christians need to respect the various views of their fellow Christians who have deeply held convictions about birth control, divorce and remarriage, and sexual orientation among other contemporary issues. If a group wishes to set certain conservative moral boundaries I say let them do so as long as they are not harming others or forcing others to accept the guidance of their conscience.

A Christian response ought to include spiritual virtues or fruit.
Matt 5-7; Gal 5:22-23

Any list of Christian fruit or virtues provides a challenge for most of us. Sometimes what people say is contradicted by their tone of voice or the actions they take. Virtue is deep. Virtue is more than words.

The texts I refer to are too long to summarize here. What I am saying is that there are so many positive virtues that could grab the focus of our attention and contribute to the historical notion of a moral person. A person who possess moral character.

So in summary I think we Christians ought to be about a moral response grounded in just rules consistent with Jesus’ command to love others as ourselves. And the rules ought to be tempered by evaluating the consequences of acting on a rule in all circumstances. And finally, moral responses might more readily flow from someone whose character reflects Christian virtues.

I’ve written about same-sex marriage and other issues in  A House Divided










Notes and sources

The idea of the second commandment and equality comes from William K. Frankena, Ethics (1963). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

The idea of considering consequences is of course a consequentialist approach derived from various authors such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (On Liberty) and more recently evaluated by Joshua Greene in Moral Tribes. See also Utilitarianism.

I also drew upon On Liberty when thinking about religious freedom.





Thursday, June 30, 2016

LOVING GAYS AND LOVING GOD

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Feelings of loyalty and betrayal.

In a video interview, Dianne and Wendell Merritt discuss their love for God and for their gay son. They deeply love both but painfully express feelings of divided loyalty.

Wendell: “Which do we choose?”

Dianne: “I don’t want to betray…”

How do Christians end up feeling such distress?














(Watch the interview at this link)

Loyalty is a moral sentiment.

 In the book, The Righteous Mind, Jonathan Haidt reviews research leading to his formulation of six moral foundations linked to emotional responses. Loyalty is a foundation more often found among religious and political conservatives rather than liberals.

The primary emotions associated with loyalty and betrayal are pride and rage. People are loyal to their families, religious traditions, and nations. Some people are loyal to their sports teams and clubs. Some are strongly loyal to their political party and experience distress when they don’t like a particular leader or suspect their side will lose an election.

Those with a strong sense of loyalty feel great pride when their group, or a member of a group, reaches a goal or does something honorable. And they can feel a strong sense of anger and even rage when they, or members of their group, are attacked from outsiders.

You may say the couple doesn’t have to feel a divided loyalty. But that’s not easy for people who accept the traditional teaching of Christian churches that homosexuality is a sin. Some evangelicals teach that you cannot be gay and Christian sin (e.g., Larry Tomczak). And of course, same-sex marriage is out of the question according to the official teaching of most Christians.

Many kind and loving parents, teachers, and other Christians experience an inner struggle about LGBT issues. They are often silent. Not because they do not care but I suspect it is because they do not know what to say. They want to love God, which entails obedience to God. And they want to love all people-including sexual minorities. In short they want to follow the twin commandments of Jesus to love God and love others. But they do not want to disobey a biblical teaching about same-sex sexual relations.

What’s the way out?

Start a conversation. Like other Christian psychologists, I’ve been asked to meet with conservative Christian groups to provide knowledge about LGBT issues and think about ways to show love and respect. Just talking openly about strong feelings and brainstorming ways local churches can show love and respect toward the sexual minorities in their community.

People will have different comfort zones because sex in itself is not a comfortable topic for many to talk about in church. And as I’ve mentioned before, the emotion of disgust also interferes with reason overpowering emotion.

Sometimes people modify their views and sometimes they do not. But I do find many sincere Christians willing to find ways to overcome the negativity that too often hurts the very people they want to love.

Sure there are hostile Christians who are quick to condemn any sinner. Such folks make the news. But they don’t represent a broad spectrum of loving Christians.



Read more about Christianity, Sexuality, and Morality in  A House Divided

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Notes

The source for the video interview is  compelling love.

Free download of my review of Haidt’s book, The Righteous Mind


Friday, May 27, 2016

Abortion is Morally Wrong According to Polling Data


She's Only 13

Meet Alicia.* She's a 13-year old girl referred for counseling. She'd had an abortion after learning she was pregnant--her father raped her. Now she's in a foster home. She's severely depressed. She doesn't want to live. She misses her family. She's angry about being ripped away from her sister and the mother that didn't protect her. When you meet real people with real needs, morality become personal- relational.

Abortion is in the News

Most Americans believe abortion is morally wrong. That’s the consistent finding from the Marist Poll of Americans. In 2013 the rate of agreement was 62%. And all but 2% considered abortion a moral issue. In 2016, six in 10 Americans agree, “abortion is morally wrong.” (Washington Times)

Pew Research in 2017 reported public support for legal abortion at 57% in all or most cases and 40% opine abortion should be illegal in all or most cases.

Pew clarifies the data in terms of "absolute" positions. So, 25% say abortion should be legal in ALL cases and 16% say it should be illegal in ALL cases. Thus, most Americans consider exceptions.


When Does Life Begin?

Beliefs about when life begins might depend on the wording of the question. Marist results indicated 53% believed life begins at conception.

Pew researchers ask the question a little differently. They asked if abortion should be illegal. The opinion depends on the category of the faithful. Six-in-ten white Evangelical Protestants and Mormons believe abortion should be illegal in all or most cases. In contrast, about 63% of mainline Protestants believe abortion should be legal in all or most cases.

Polls rarely get at the depth of beliefs about abortion. Why do people believe abortion is right or wrong? Is the life in the womb a child? If so, why have no jurisdictions declared the fetus is a person with human rights—especially since so many people believe abortion is morally wrong.

In fact, why are people using the word abortion? After all, if people are killing a child then the act is murder. Of course, many people are unwilling to recognize the early division of cells as constituting a living human being.

Moral Facts

Scientific advances have presented information about the developing lives within a mother in incredible detail. With knowledge comes increased responsibility. Although many Christians turn to the Bible for guidance on morality, they obviously come away with different perspectives. The general view is that human life is sacred.

In the case of abortion, science has provided relevant moral facts about what features of a human being develop at what week of pregnancy. We know when there’s a heartbeat and we see videos of a developing person with recognizable body parts. When complications develop, medical personnel are able to save the lives of premature babies at earlier stages than ever before.

Moral Reasoning

So what’s your view on the morality of abortion? And why do you believe what you believe?

People reason differently about the morality of so many issues—abortion is no exception. As in previous posts and elaborated upon in A House Divided, most reasons fall into one of six categories.

1. Who suffers harm?
At some point, there is good evidence the unborn baby suffers pain during an abortion.

Mothers are in a bind. Depending on how you measure harm (medical, economic, emotional, spiritual) mothers are at risk to experience harm during pregnancy and as a result of abortion. Not all mothers experience significant harm. It is impossible to form a judgment for an individual mother based on group data.

Fathers and families also experience harm when the life of an expected child is taken in an abortion or the mother experiences distress during her pregnancy.

2. What is fair?

Justice as fairness is a common moral concern, famously articulated by Rawls. Mothers ought to be treated fairly by society. But children also deserve to be treated fairly. Again, we are back to the value of the life of the unborn child. Fairness also implies a concern for rights. Here we ought to be concerned about the rights of the father and other family members. Indeed, we may also be concerned about a just society for all persons and the implications for arguments about the value placed on other lives.

3. Isn’t Killing Babies Disgusting?

Perhaps the most damning moral argument is really one derived from the psychology of disgust. The prolife movement has found that the portrayal of unborn children in the womb draws on our natural desire to protect our young. And concomitantly, we are averse to scenes—pictured or described—revealing the destruction or dismemberment of unborn children.

Christian Views

Christians quote Bible passages recognizing the sacredness of life—especially children (e.g., Jeremiah 1:4-5; Psalms 22:9-10; Luke 1:41,44; Galatians 1:15). But some are troubled by other stories or passages in which God appears to support the ending of a child’s life (e.g., Jeremiah 19:9; Psalm 137:8-9; Hosea 13:16; 2 Kings 15:16).

Most Christians, like other people, are prolife. Some support a woman’s choice—especially in cases of incest and rape. Integrity requires Christians to be honest about the difficult biblical texts. To ignore those verses that do not affirm the value of life for all people in favor of supportive texts is dishonest and can only lead intelligent people to reject Christian views.

Moral Arguments Include Emotions

The arguments about abortion go on at some length but most emphasize some aspect of concern for harm to mother and child and human rights.

Although people seem to think they must have logical reasons for being prolife or prochoice, I find the best reason for being prolife is the natural desire in most of us to protect our young and react with disgust toward the killing of our young.

Abortion is indeed a moral issue.

And a just society must demonstrate deep concern for women who have become pregnant as a result of incest and other forms of rape.

It is natural to want simple answers to life concerns. Unfortunately, simple answers only come at the expense of ignoring evidence whether they evidence comes from science or contradictory reasons.

*To protect privacy, names and details do not match real people. Examples are constructed to illustrate a point. 
________________________________________________________________________________
Read more about abortion and related issues in

 A House Divided: Sexuality, Morality, and Christian Cultures

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Abortion Data

In the U.S., 699,202 legal abortion were reported in 2012. The abortion rate was 13.2 abortion per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44. This rate is a decline of 4% from 2011.

Most women who had an abortion were in their 20s.

Most abortions were performed before a gestational age of 13 weeks (91.4%).

Data from the CDC http://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/data_stats/






Friday, May 20, 2016

TEEN PREGNANCY An Opportunity to Care




16 year-old Chelsea discovers she's pregnant. What does she do? Change the age or the name- the fact is, thousands of single girls are pregnant and giving birth each year. Christians often have an opportunity to help or hinder her progress.

TEEN PREGNANCY RATES

U.S. teen pregnancy is on the decline among girls age 15 to 19. Data collected between 1991 to 2014 reveal a drop of 61% among all ethnic groups. That's the good news.

The National Campaign provides data for all 50 U.S. States, which reveal uneven progress. Overall, the 2014 data indicate 24.2 births per 1,000 girls. Despite the progress, many girls are still having children.

DIVISIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Pregnant teens need support. They have physical, emotional, social, and spiritual needs. They need medical care. Many need housing and financial support.

Kicking them out of homes is not a moral option. In providing support for single mothers, Christians holding diverse beliefs about sexuality and morality can come together to meet the needs of two lives—mothers and the child they carry.

Sometimes, a young family may also need support when fathers remain involved. In such cases, Christians can help young people build a family that otherwise might dissolve under the weight of many stressors.

Although the focus is often on teen mothers, it’s important to note that close to half (45%) of all pregnancies are unplanned. The rate is higher amongst single women in their 20s (69%). Many of these women also need assistance.

It’s no surprise that Christians disagree over many issues regarding sexuality and the social issues surrounding sex. Christian Fundamentalists and many Protestant Evangelicals and Catholics strongly advocate abstinence only sex-education programs. While some young people abstain, many do not.

Obviously, sex without contraception can lead to pregnancy, which in turn leads to stress when young lives are unprepared to care for a new born.

There are many moral issues at stake. The policies of churches and the moral principles of families and individuals are important. Sex education can be vital to mental and physical health when the information helps people make decisions about sex and pregnancy.

The pressing needs of a pregnant single mother pose a critical moral issue that confronts people of faith with a choice to help or not help mother and child build a positive future.

RESOURCES

Christian organizations and government agencies offer a range of services to help pregnant teens and their families.

Care Net links people to Pregnancy Centers sharing a Christian perspective.

Here’s a link to government resources. http://www.cdc.gov/parents/other_resources.html

______________________________________________________________________
Read more about sexuality and morality in Christian cultures in A House Divided.

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Genital Cutting: Morality, Religion, and Science


Ancient Egyptian Medical Tools Science Museum.org.uk



Genital Cutting is a Moral Issue

The U S Centers for Disease Control (CDC) weighed in on the benefits of male circumcision. Cutting children’s genitals has a long religious and moral history, which does not always coincide with the most recent scientific evidence. (Link to CDC pdf).

Because genital cutting is a moral issue, I reviewed research when writing A House Divided. The focus is of course on boys in western cultures where the practice is common. Cutting of a girl’s genitals is widely condemned in western cultures but is common in nonwestern cultures.


Cutting boys

Cutting a boy’s foreskin (circumcision) has a long religious history. The Hebrew Bible tells the story of Abraham’s carrying out of the commandment to begin circumcision (Genesis 17), which set apart the Jewish males from those in other cultures.

The first Christians were Jews but when non-Jews converted, the question of circumcision divided the faithful. The matter was resolved metaphorically- for non-Jews, literal circumcision was not necessary- it was a matter of the heart (Romans 2: 29).

Moral arguments commonly focus on three issues

1. Scientific evidence points to benefits outweighing harm therefore male genital cutting is a good and ought to be done.

2. Male genital cutting is a harmful practice. It literally hurts boys. And in some cases, boys get infected and die. (Narvaez, 2011).

3. Male genital cutting is an optional intrusive surgical procedure and is therefore a matter of individual rights. Boys should be allowed to make their own decision. Parents ought not to consent to perform optional surgery on their children without the consent of the child.

For a review of pros and cons of male circumcision, see the WebMD article.

Cutting girls

Cutting a girls’ genitals has been called circumcision by some but others call it Female Genital Mutilation or FGM. Some use the term Female Genital Cutting (FGC). The essential reason for the mutilation language and condemnation is the intrusiveness of the cutting and the harm done. Different cultures practice different degrees of cutting.

Religious people include female genital cutting as part of their religious beliefs. According to Human Rights Watch, the religious groups include Christians, Jews, and Muslims; however, female genital cutting or circumcision is not part of the official teaching of these faiths.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the practice has been around for thousands of years. Both general health and mental health problems have been linked to FGM. A lengthy review of the research can be found in a WHO report.

Moral arguments commonly focus on two issues

1. Female genital cutting is harmful and there are no medical benefits that outweigh the harm.

2. Female genital cutting is an intrusive surgical procedure that violates the individual rights of the person forced to undergo the procedure.

To read more about sexuality and morality in Christian cultures, see A House Divided.














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For related issues on morality and Christian cultures see A House Divided.

Also, A House Divided Website

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